European public-service media organizations have compiled a database of incidents that national governments, law enforcement agencies or intelligence services linked to Russian or Belarusian hybrid activity.
The joint investigation was coordinated by Eurovision News Spotlight.
Russian-language outlet Vot Tak, which participated in the project, separately examined physical incidents in 17 European countries between April 1 and October 15.
Its journalists counted 48 incidents that authorities linked to Russia or possible Russian operations and another four associated with Belarus.
The dataset includes arson attacks, sabotage, damage to infrastructure, drone incidents and other physical events.
The strength of evidence tying individual incidents to state actors varies considerably. In some cases, investigators identified specific suspects and possible links to intelligence services; in others, Russian or Belarusian involvement remains only one theory under investigation.
The figure of 52 therefore should not be interpreted as 52 proven operations conducted by Russian or Belarusian state agencies.